Challenges Faced In Excessive Executive Compensation Business Essay

Challenges Faced In Excessive Executive Compensation Business Essay Excessive executive bonus packages have been the bulk of workplace concern, community and political debate about ethical justifications of the huge disparity between compensations of the companys CEO and a factory worker. This research paper aims to explore the issue of the existing huge differences between compensations that exists between the chief executive officers (CEOs) and factory workers of most companies. Much information has been collected from various sites as indicated in the reference page. This is a real situation in many companies of extremely large sizes and recognized global positions. In my paper I will explore the significant gaps between CEOs packages and factory workers. The qualities of the CEOs, and the reasons that justify their huge payments, and the opinions of the shareholders on CEOs compensation.. Any company requires a competent CEO to move through the hard challenges of global technology and acquire competitive advantage in the global market. Performance of a worker is based on compensation from the company. Compensation should be measured by the level of expertise of a worker and the possible challenges faced by the responsibility required by the particular employee. In any business organization, hierarchy is indispensable. Senior and subordinate positions are therefore necessary in any business enterprise. However the great difference between the salaries of the most senior and the least position in the same company should be meaningful as a matter of ethic concern. The CEO of any company holds the highest rank of the particular company, organization or business enterprise, especially the one focused towards making profit. Big companies make use of board members to come up with policies that the company acts upon. The act on these policies is the sole responsibilities of the CEO of the company. It therefore implies the success or failure of the company to meet the goals and objectives as laid down by the policies is the responsibilities of the CEO of the company. To achieve success therefore, the CEO must be widely informed and visionary towards the business environment. The CEO must translate the anticipated future changes and lay appropriate measures, to cope up with any negative changes, which may affect the business (Garten, 2002). The changes expected and their thought out solutions should be communicated to the entire task force of the company so that, every participating worker is ready to face challenges posed by these changes. The CEO has a responsibility of setting a good example to the rest of the workers. Leadership competency inherent in the CEO should be used as a role model for the others to copy and utilize for the sake of the companys progress. Role modeling should extend to formulating desired standards of the company as a significant component to achieve a competitive position required by globalization. All employees should receive support and motivation as a result of the efforts of the CEO (Kim Mauborgne2005). In the business environment, there are usually threats facing productivity. There also are some favorable opportunities. The two are hidden from a normal worker, but to the CEO, the ability to foresee these issues should be automatic. This is the visionary quality of the CEO. The global market is fast expanding at a pace requiring very competitive CEOs. The labor market is accompanied by rapid technology changes and advancements, which need to be incorporated into the companys labor framework. The knowledge required in this field is essentially vested on the companys CEO whose performance is very critical to the competitive advantage of the company (Charan, Drotter, Noel, 2006). CEOs remuneration packages The compensation given to the CEOs of most companies have been a centre of interest by media, the community and the politicians. Why should they enjoy hefty packages in the tune of hundreds of times as compared to other workers of the same company? This has been a controversial issue requiring attention. The lavish payments are sufficient to afford CEOs luxurious lives and make them millionaires. The projections currently reached at using the current trend hold that by the year 2050, some companies CEOs will earn 150,000 times the average wage of a factory worker in the same company (Korten, 2001). This disparity is so huge that the issue has raised concern. Some individual feels that whatever the position of the CEO and whatever the contribution to the company the CEO makes, such a disparity is unwarranted and to the true sense, unethical. Furthermore, some companies paying such huge packages to the CEO end up realizing some loss in their production, but their existence is justified with reasons in the company. But irrespective as to whether a company makes a profit or a loss, the question remains whether the great disparity in payment between the CEO and the majority of the workers is justified. Many sectors have expressed anger towards those payments which are enormous. The compensation of the CEO is likely to scare away investors in potential fields due to the threat posed to the companies to pay CEO such high payments (Korten, 2001). The shareholders also approve the awarding of the companys stocks to the CEO as part of bonus packages. These awards empower the CEO to become owners of their employer company. This is a great encouragement to the CEO and a motivation to improve on the performance of the company. Justification for hefty CEOs Packages. The CEOs are subjected to evaluation, judgment and scrutiny by the companys shareholders, the general public, the media and the politicians. They must overcome the challenges brought about by their performance. The companies they ran have some potential opportunities to become extremely rich through their efforts. Therefore they are usually on a daily scrutiny from various spheres (Bakan, 2005). The CEO is the highest ranking talent in any company. Therefore, correct choice and hiring of the CEO is very crucial towards the performance of the company. In the daily schedules of the CEO there are no weekends or vacation, meaning that the CEOs intellectual capability is a precious asset to the company. The profits and profit margins realized by the company depend entirely on the CEO. The companys responsibility in the manipulation of existing resources lies squarely on the CEO of the particular company. The companies paying these hefty packages attribute the packages to the degree of performance of the CEO. However, the level of wisdom the boards of directors use to come up with the seemingly illogical figures of the CEOs packages is questionable. The other issue of concern is the opinion of the shareholders as regards the huge CEOs compensation (Belasco James, 1992). What are the opinions of the shareholders with respect to excessive payment of CEOs? Based on confidence the company is able to impart to its shareholders, the question of the huge pays may not come up. The shareholders approve the packages without arguments on condition that the benefits they derive from the company are handsome as compared to other companies. The packages are seen as a shield to counter any possible mishandling of the companies assets and options. Any workplace thefts are believed to be protected by the companys CEO. They are believed to posses a talent and high skills of management necessary to move the company through a competitive global business environment. This managerial talent is taken as an asset of the company just like other existing assets (Clegg, Kornberger, Pitsics, 2005). The CEO compensation is correlated with the size of the company. The assignments of the CEO are believed to be competitive due to the competitiveness required in the global market. The shareholders approval is also based upon the ability of the CEOs to capitalize the market and positioning their company at a global focal point. The fortunes of multinational business enterprises entirely lie on their CEOs. The package therefore is treated as an economic rent by the company (Clegg, Kornberger, Pitsics, 2005). Is performance of the company related to profit generation? Ironically a company with a highly paid CEO can operate at a loss. This has happened on many occasions whereby the financial statements of the company once analyzed, result to negative net income. In such a scenario, the CEO is not blamed for the losses incurred by the company. On the contrary the company argues there had been strategic plans to reorganize the companys production processes, to improve on the performance of the company in the future. This is argued from the visionary quality associated with the CEO. The logic advocated for is that, the strategic reorganizations will have far reaching economic benefits in the future of the company. The competitiveness of the company should not be perceived from the short- term perspective but rather, a long- term projection is a requirement. The company should be rooted on a stable foundation and this calls for utilization of the company resources for the long- term investment. The managerial skills necessary to achieve the long- term companys goals are possessed by the companys CEO.This is enough justification to accommodate for losses realized sometimes, within the company while continuing to offer hefty packages to the companys CEO (Bashein, Barbara, Markus Riley, 1994). The companys stock also determines to a great magnitude the justification of excessive payments to the CEO. The compensations in the market place of the companys stock may be so favorable at the time when the company is suffering losses in income in tunes of millions of dollars. This is considered insignificant given the scenario of the appreciable market prize of the companys stock(Bashein, Barbara, Markus Riley, 1994). The companys views on CEO Packages Most companies views on hefty packages of their CEOs are positive. Their skills are believed to be the cause of the companys success. Companies also believe that any improvements achieved within the company are the result of the CEO contributions. The added value of the company is the principle attraction of shareholders to the company. CEOs are therefore seen to be important figures towards attracting investments into the company through attracting enormously high numbers of shareholders. For shareholders to show interest in any company there should be an aspect of responsibility and clearness shown by the company through the CEO. The CEO is taken as the companys think tank. The CEOs intellectual capabilities are cherished as companys property available for taping. Qualities associated with a competent CEO are brilliance, information update on the companys productive environment, awareness of technology advancements and timely positive response to the changes in technology, curious on technical issues facing the company, awareness of current developments surrounding the company and increasing the speed of policy issues execution and implementation (Bashein, Barbara, Markus Riley, 1994). Conclusion The huge disparity existing between the CEOs of the best performing companies places the CEOs in extremely prestigious position with respect to their subordinates. The benefits enjoyed put them in position seen by the workers and the community as the owners of the companies. At the end of the day the CEO take home quite handsome packages that allow them to become millionaires while the factory workers struggle in their lifetimes to pay minor bills needed for their basic life. It is an appreciable fact that through their contributions, the companies attract shareholders who in return earn benefits out of their investments in the company. However the trend in the progress of the increasing disparity is a clear cause to scare investors and demoralize the workers of the company alike. The success of CEOs depends on their credibility, and represents the highest degree of integrity. This requirement is also taken as a justification for their hefty remuneration packages. The shareholders of the respective company are the most appropriate individuals suited to address the disparity issues. The shareholders are the rightful owners of the company and therefore the board of directors should act as per their guidelines. Much attention should be diverted from whatever the gains they achieve from the company in form of dividends but rather concentrate on the significant percentage of the companys profit pocked by a single CEO. The welfare of the factory workers needs to be given an appropriate attention. Most of the workers perform their duties in extremely difficult and risky situation. The risks are mostly ignored as they are not given the relevant rewards and financial coverage. This also contributes to the widening gap between their payments and those of the CEO.

Gender Inequality in the Work Place

Gender inequality and The Work Place The society in which we live has been shaped historically by males. The policy makers have consistently been males and therefore it is not surprising that our society reflects those biases which exist in result of this male dominating society. One might think that gender inequality in the work place is rooted in what shapes future employees and employers. Whoever said men and women are equal?Women have always taken a back seat to men in American society. This is not only found in the United States, but in other countries as well. The problem of men and women not being equal can be traced back to the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence proclaimed that all men are created equal. There was no mention of women being equal, only men. At the time of the drafting of the document, the men had all the power.The document was even drafted by a man; Women were confined to the home to take care of the domestic housekeeping duties. Soci ologist Perspective In my research on work place inequality, I read a perspective from a sociologist named Sandra Bem who focuses on gender. However, unlike most female sociologist, Bem chooses not to focus on the differences between males and females, but rather on their similarities.She says that polarized gender socialization, the way that we assign masculine or feminine characteristics to things such as walking and talking to make males and females appear to be different, keeps us from realizing that the sexes are more alike than they are opposite. Men and women have the same needs for food, clothing, shelter, affection, belonging and so on. Whether by choice or economic necessity, woman have entered the paid labor force in numbers recent years, and so they should be entitled to equal pay and respect.Although many people who know these statistics are optimistic about the gain women have made in the United States specifically in employment, it should be noted that women’s positions as a social category in the labor force is lower than men’s in term of status, opportunities and salary. Feminist researchers have used the advancements of women into top-tier management jobs as a litmus test for how well women are faring in the labor force as a whole. Studies continue to confirm that women hold a small percentage of the top positions. Causes of Gender Inequality in the WorkplaceThe causes of gender equality in these positions stem from four stereotypes; Sexism : American cultural belief that women are best suited for jobs that emphasize service, nurturing, housekeeping, men best suited for careers of high-level decision making and authority, Lack of qualifications: Men typically have more education and job experience than women 28% of men age 25+ have completed at least 4 years of college 27% of Women Men have more job experience because women loose time during pregnancy and child care, The glass ceiling: subtle and unconscious discrimination that prevents them from reaching higher and better-paying positions for which they are qualified. Women and minorities make up 30% of middle managers in U. S. but less than 1% of chief execs, networking: Men use golf clubs, other rec places where women were discouraged from going. The Functionalist PerspectiveAccording to functionalist Talcott Parsons (1955), gender inequality is inevitable because of the biological division of labor: Men are generally stronger than women and have certain abilities and interest. Parson said, men find themselves more suited to be goal oriented and women to expressive. Other functionalist explanations of gender inequality focus on the human capital that men and women bring to the workplace. According to human capital explanations, what individuals earn is based on choices they have made, including choices about the kinds of training and experiences they accumulate. For example, human capital analysts argue that women diminish their human capital when they leave the labor force to engage in childbearing and child care activities.So this is why they have less experience. It takes two to tangle that’s unprecedented. Conclusion/Solution Inequality has kept in place because of beliefs and practices that have been drilled into people’s minds for so long. When will women be treated as equals to men in the work place? I don't see a change happening in the near future. Women are slowly being treated more as equals to men but the gap will never narrow to complete equality. Women should, not only be treated as equal in the work place, but also in everything else as well. Whether it is a computer scientist, an athlete, or a president of the United States, women should be treated as equal to men.Gender discrimination has gone too far and we, as a society, have to draw the line. We can’t change past issues, but we can certainly change the future. Work Cited: â€Å"The Declaration of Independence. † The Declaration of In dependence. N. p. , n. d. Web. 10 Feb. 2013. Greenbuam, Vicky. â€Å"Seeing through the Lenses of Gender: Beyound Male/Female Polarization. † English Journal 88. 3 (1999): 96-99. Web. 10 Feb. 2013. Kendall, Diana Elizabeth. Social Problems in a Diverse Society. Boston: Pearson, 2013. Print. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Web. 10 Feb. 2013 [ 2 ]. Greenbuam, English Journal 88. 3, 1999 [ 3 ]. Kendall, 2013. [ 4 ]. Kendall, 2013, Pg. 94

The Implementation Of Anti Bullying Initiatives - 976 Words

The implementation of anti-bullying initiatives has become increasingly linked with educational polices aimed at improving a school’s effectiveness. We now know that students’ social and emotional learning helps to facilitate their academic learning, and that a student’s level of social competence and the success of their social lives often correlates with their success in classroom academics. Research has continued to highlight that any significant change in school practices requires time and a consistent whole-school approach, especially in the area of bullying preventative strategies. The goals of anti-bullying initiatives also align with the teaching in schools of indispensable socio-moral values such as respect, care, cooperation, acceptance of differences and inclusion. In summary, there are significant moral, social, emotional and educational advantages to addressing the issue of bullying in schools. According to researchers, bullying since the 1990s has become more aggressive and frequent in occurrence (Ross, 2002). When compared to other schoolyard aggressions, bullying was found to be one of the most common forms of violence taking place (Ross, 2002). But bullying is, and never has been, something entirely confined to the schoolyard. It is an act that has been present for hundreds of years and takes place in a multitude of settings such as the workplace and the retirement homes of the elderly. It would be fair to say, however, that it does occur most predominantlyShow MoreRelatedTarget Group for Bullying and Harassment Prevention Training Program828 Words   |  3 PagesLifestyles, Behavior Introduction: To ensure the success of the Bullying and Harassment prevention training program there must be organzational context to provide a clear understanding of the scope of the program. It must prove the effectiveness. One explains and utilizes the resources available, like the internet and student to teacher relationships to provide a safe school environment for students. Strategic and consistent implementation is needed. Definition: Organizational context -The organizationalRead MoreBullying Is The Leading Social Issue Among Young Teens1580 Words   |  7 Pagesindividuals be happy when there are people engaging in the act of bullying? Bullying is the leading social issue among young teens today who are trying to find their place in the world. Simply trying to fit in with the rest, with the newest clothes or newest trends.Bullying is defined as the use of force, threat or abuse, to enforce dominance over others. This behavior is often repeated and constant by the bully themselves. The reasoning why bullying takes place is basically because of differences in classRead MorePrincipals Demonstrate School Culture And Equity Leadership788 Words   |  4 Pageslines of communication about possible involvement at a school promotes a good system, in which good people can thrive. In my leadership internship, I have aided in drafting many 20NET alerts to families, hosted parent nights regarding school initiatives, cheered with parents for their children at athletic events, and mediated conversations about student learning at parent-teacher conferences and IEP or 504 meetings. One way in which I have articulated and positively reinforced a clear vision andRead MoreThe Implementation Plan Is Based On Lewins 3 Step Model Of Change1279 Words   |  6 PagesD. Implementation The implementation plan is based on Lewin’s 3-Step Model of Change and Kotter’s eight-step model. A detailed implementation plan is provided in Appendix A Preparation – First, the management is recommended to appoint a change manager responsible for implementing the change initiative. The use of a change manager would be beneficial to Cafà © Hip because of his or her ability to focus on selling changes to employees, provide expertise in diffusing politics between the kitchen staffRead MoreBullying Behavior Is A Worldwide Phenomenon That Has Become An Urgent Public Health Concern3131 Words   |  13 PagesIntroduction Bullying behavior is a worldwide phenomenon that has become an urgent public health concern in recent years. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014) proclaims that in the United States (U.S.), 70.6% of school-aged youths identified at least one occurrence of bullying in their schools. Among these U.S. students, 28% reported experiencing bully victimization, while 30% admitted to bullying other students (Gladden, Vivolo-Kantor, Hamburger Lumpkin, 2014). CharacterizedRead MoreCyber Bullying Essay1473 Words   |  6 PagesStutzky suggests that cyber bullying is the use of modern communication technologies to embarrass, humiliate, threaten, or intimidate an individual in the attempt to gain power and control over them. Bullying has been around since the beginning of time. These days however, bullying isn’t just happening on the playground, it’s happening on the internet and mobile phones, making it possible to bully a child 24 hours a day. Cyber bullying follows children around the clock and into the safety of theirRead MoreUkraine Case Study1376 Words   |  6 Pagesjoin a trade agreement with the EU in the works, Russian President Vladimir Putin already halted some forms of trade with the Ukraine. However, many believed that Yanukovych was being bribed and bullied into keeping ties with Russia. â€Å"Money, trade, bullying and the fortunes of Ukrainian politicians and oligarchs are certain to have played a central r ole in Yanukovych’s calculation with Russia† (Traynor Grytsenko, 2013). By siding with Russia he was impeached as President of Ukraine and ultimatelyRead MoreWe Can Not Spell Bullying Or Stupid Without Iu 1849 Words   |  8 PagesNovember 2015 You Cannot Spell Bullying or Stupid without ‘IU’ The act of bullying in the school setting has been a recurring theme in American History, as it is still ubiquitous despite efforts from mediators, programs, speakers wanting to fix this situation. Though many people may consider such efforts futile, bullying is a real-life situation and it is important for students to understand that it is unacceptable for their peers to feel undermined from it. Bullying is something that is common, asRead MoreAnti-Bullying Prevention Proposal6403 Words   |  26 PagesProposal – XYZ High School Anti-Bullying Program 20130228 Juvenile Justice Prevention Program Proposal Section 1. DESCRIBE THE TARGET GROUP The direct target group is the current freshman class at suburban middle class XYZ High School (XYZHS). Naturally, as the sophomore, junior, and senior classes matriculate through the school, they will be indirectly affected by the program and expected to hold true to the lessons and values taught in the anti-bullying curricula during their freshmanRead MoreThe Knowledge of Students at Conestoga College on Cyber Bullying2186 Words   |  9 Pagesstudents at Conestoga College regarding the cyber bullying? The purpose of the study was to find out if students are aware of the college policies, laws regarding the cyber bullying. The study about cyberbullying was conducted by doing a research at the Doon Campus of Conestoga College. To conduct the study on Cyber Bullying a survey method was employed by the researchers. The survey method has been used to gather some context regarding cyber bullying within the college. The survey consisted of the

International Business Transactions Have Many Elements...

Introduction Those organizations wishing to engage in international business transactions have many elements they must consider. One of these elements is that of foreign exchange rates, the rate at which one currency can be converted into another (Hill, 2014, p. 296). While a company may be located in the United States, they may engage in commerce with organizations in foreign markets that require payment in their domestic currencies. Organizations must pay careful attention to these exchange rates, as their fluctuations can significantly impact the costs of doing international business, as demonstrated in the first section. While exchange rates are determined by the supply and demand of currencies on the foreign exchange market†¦show more content†¦Identify the spot and forward exchange rates between the two currencies. What factors influence your decision to use each? Which one would you choose? How many dollars must you spend to acquire the amount of yen required? This or ganization wishes to limit its transaction exposure when paying its Japanese supplier in six months. This exposure reflects how the cost of this transaction is affected by foreign exchange price fluctuations (p. 313). Because the exchange rate is expected to fluctuate during this period, the  ¥1,000,000 will payment will cost the organization differing amounts depending on which exchange rate is used for the conversion of the domestic currency into the Japanese Yen, which will impact the organizations profit margins. There are two options for this conversion, the spot exchange rate and the forward exchange rate. The spot exchange rate is the currency conversion rate on a specific date (p. 298). As of May 28, 2016, the spot exchange rate for the conversion of U.S. dollars into Japanese yen is $1= ¥110.36 (USD/JPY - US Dollar Japanese Yen , n.d.). If the organization chose to convert its domestic currency into Yen on this date, the organization would be required exchange $9,061.26 (rounded up) to fulfill the  ¥1,000,000 requirement. An alternative to this rate is the forward exchange rate. This rate is the currency exchange rate governing transactions that occur in the

Factors Contributing For Food Choices - 2823 Words

Factors Contributing to Food Choices Anshrea Crosby David Whyte Shannon Frost Professor Robert T. Haines Experimental Psychology 320.002 May 4, 2015 Abstract The purpose of this study is to determine which factors cause people to choose the food that they eat the most. We hypothesized that the reason people eat certain foods is due to a number of different reasons. The factors explored in this study were time, quickness, cost, taste, environmental factors, and convenience. The data for this study was collected by administering surveys to college students in two experimental psychology classes. Each student was given an informed consent form and survey to complete and turn back in to the researcher. The results of the study†¦show more content†¦Several researchers have examined the reasoning behind eating habits. They believe that if the reasoning behind eating habits was determined and known, then possibly bad eating habits could be decreased. High school students and college students especially need to be cautious of the food they are consuming. Bad food choices may not affect them now, but will play a huge role in the future. Nutritional intake during adolescence is important for growth, long-term health promotion, and the development of lifelong eating behaviors. The total nutrient needs are higher in adolescence than during any other time in the life cycle because of rapid growth and development (Casey, Neumark-Sztainer, Perry Story, 1999). In a study conducted by Cheryl Perry, Dianne Neumark-Sztainer, Mary Anne Casey, and Mary Story, the researchers analyzed adolescents’ perceptions about factors influencing their food choices and eating behaviors. The study included 141 males and females in two schools located in St. Paul, Minn. These participants were in 21 focus groups and were divided into these groups based off of gender and classification. The focus groups were held in the school setting with each group in a different classroom. The participants were audiotaped, and the tapes were transcribed verbatim to ensure systematic analysis of

The Western Roman Empire †the Rise Fall Free Essays

string(29) " used for urban development\." Western Roman Empire | A map depicting the separate empires of Rome| Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase From Kingdom To Republic The Etruscans and Rome (Previous Wiki notes) There are many different versions on how Rome started the ones told to kids are very simple with very few names: . Ancient Rome for Kids  The story of Romulus and Remus for adults have dates, more names and details:  Wolf Country, Myth and Stories You can find many versions of myths, however the version the text book talks about Aeneas, a refugee from Troy who migrated to Italy when Greek invaders destroyed his land. Tow of his decedents, twins; Romulus and Remus, almost didn’t survive infancy because and evil uncle abandoned them by a flooded Tiber River. We will write a custom essay sample on The Western Roman Empire – the Rise Fall or any similar topic only for you Order Now A she-wolf found them and nursed them back to health. When the boys grew older, Romulus founded the city of Rome and established himself as its first kind in 753 B. C. E. However scholars tell a different story. Some Greek historians believe that Aeneas settled at Rome, which was a small city-state. In the fourth century B. C. , Rome began to expand and Romans came into greater contact with the Greeks, which suggest that Aeneas has a role in the creation of the great city. In the first century B. C. , the Roman Poet Virgil developed the Aeneas myth in his epic poem the  Aeneid, which talked about Aeneas’ journey to Rome. Augustus, the first Roman emperor and emperor during Virgil’s time, and Julius Caesar, his great uncle and predecessor as the Roman ruler, were known to be decedents of Aeneas. ( Information founded in the article:  This Day in History: Rome founded) The text book talks about how Indo-Europeans migrated crossed the Alps and settled through the Italian peninsula, including the future site of Rome. The Roman Republic and Its Constitution The Romans got rid of the last Etruscan king in 509 B. C. E. The republican constution had two consuls; military and civil. These consuls were elected by an assembly that was dominated by the high class, or patricians. There was also a senate which advised the consuls and helped ratify major decisions. Because both the senate and consuls represented only the interests of the patricians there were many conflicts between the patricians and the lower class, or plebeians. To solve these conflicts, the patricians gave the plebeians tribunes, or people the plebeians could elect to speak for them. The tribunes had the  power  to intervene and veto decisions. The plebeians began to gain  power, by the early third century B. C. E the plebeians’ tribunes dominated Roman politics. From Republic To Empire Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems During the second and first centuries B. C. E, the relations between the classes were so strained that there was much conflict and violence. Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus worked to spread the land possesion and tried to limit the ammount of land a certain person could hold. Unfortunately though, they were both assasinated for fear of gaining influence over Roman affairs. The people that were in control of the political  power, were of a small class that used the power to only help themselves and their class. In 87 B. C. E Marius marched on Rome and during the first century B. C. E, Rome was in civil war. When Marius died the next year, Sulla planned to take power and soon did in 83 B. C. E. Many conservatives supported Sulla because he imposed many conservative legislation. The Foundation of Empire Julius Caesar seized Rome in 49 B. C. E by being a very popular public figure. He believed strongly in  social  reform and conquered Gaul. He was responsible for a lot of  social  reforms and changed the gonvernment to centralized control. Caesar claimed the title â€Å"dictator for life†, which earned him his assasination in 44 B. C. E. After Caesar was killed, his adopted son, Octavian, after defeating Mark Antony, took over Rome and brought civil conflict to an end. The senate bestowed the title â€Å"Augustus,† to him in 27 B. C. E. He ran a monarchy disguised as a republic. While he was in power, a new standing army was created and the imperial institutions began to take root. Continuing Expansion and Integration of the Empire The two centuries following Augustus’s rule, the Romans conquered lands in the Mediterranean basin, western Europe, and down the Nile to Kush. For two and a half centuries into the third century a long era of peace was prevelant among economic and political integration, this was called  pax romana, or â€Å"Roman peace†. Another important Roman advance was the road and highway system. The new road systems created were very well engineered and allowed for extremely quick and urgent travel, which improved the postal system extremely. Also during this time, Romans began developing a system of written law at about 450 B. C. E. They developed a system called the Twelve Tables, which was a basic law code for citizens for the early republic. Economy and Society In the Roman Mediterranean Trade and Urbanization Latifundia owners grew various crops to export in North Africa, Egypt, and Sicily. Ships carried several hundred tons of crops to cities for consumers. Other cities and regions could now focus on cultivating fruits and vegetables or manufacturing goods. Archaeologists have uncovered a pottery factory north of Rome that probably employed hundreds of workers and had a mixing vat that could hold more than 10,568 gallons (40,000 liters) of clay. The Mediterranean lake became an essential lake for the Romans because it linked many cities and was used for trading. They called the lake  mare nostrum  which means â€Å"our sea. † The Roman military and navy kept the seas mostly free of pirates to ensure that cargoes could move freely over long distances. The city of Rome received taxes, tributes, booty and other wealth from military expansion. Rome also received most of the profit from Mediterranean trade. The money was used for urban development. You read "The Western Roman Empire – the Rise Fall" in category "Papers" In the first century C. E. , there were about 10,000 statues, 700 pools, 500 fountains, and 36 monumental arches. The state financed the construction of temples, bath houses, public buildings, stadiums, and aqueducts. The aqueducts were very important because they brought fresh water to Rome. They used concrete (invented by Roman engineers) to build the aqueducts because it is very strong. The population increased dramatically because construction employed hundreds of thousands of workers. Family and Society in Roman Times The eldest male was usually the head of the common Roman family and ruled as  Pater Familias, or â€Å"father of the family†. As the pater families, the father could do anything he wanted with his children, like planning weddings or even executing them. Despite Roman law, women could hold high influence within the family. The women also would help plan weddings and even help with family finances by finding loopholes in Roman Law. As time went on, new classes of people accumulated lots of private wealth for themselves. The wealthy would live in palaces and eat exotic dishes with animal tongues in them. If there are wealthy people, there are lots of poor people, who became a big problem in Rome. The poor would often riot, but the government used a technique called â€Å"Bread and Circuses† where they would supply the poor with subsidized grain and spectacular public entertainment. One big part of Roman society was the slaves. About one third (Two sixths, three ninths, etc. ,) of the population were slaves; most of which worked on Latifundia, while others worked mines. During the second and first centuries, slaves would often revolt. One of the more serious revolts being in 73 BCE where 70,000 slaves rebelled was led by Spartacus. City slaves had a much less difficult life. Female slaves worked as servants, whereas educated or talented male slaves could lead comfortable lives, such as Epictetus, who became a Stoic philosopher. Some slaves hoped for manumission, so they could leave the slave life behind. This was not mandatory for owners, so they slaves still had to work under the owner’s command until they might be set free. The owners could do anything they wanted to with the slaves. The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salavation The Romans believed in Gods and Goddesses who intervened in human affairs, and tutelary deities who looked after the welfare of families. As the Roman empire grew, they experienced more cultures, which lead to them adopting deities from other people and adapted them to their own purposes. As well as using other cultures’ deities, they also borrowed religious practices, like animal sacrifices. The Greeks inspired the Romans in ways like rational thought and philosophy. One example is the Stoicism. The Stoics â€Å"sought to identify a set of universal moral standards based on nature and reason that would transcend local ethical codes†. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 b. c. e. ) was a Roman thinker who adopted the Stoic values. In adapting Hellenistic thought to Roman needs, Cicero drew heavily from Stoics’ moral and ethical teachings. Cicero believed that the pursuit of justice is a person’s duty and was against those who sought wealth and power through immoral ways. The majority of people believed in religions of salvation because it gave them a promise of future existence. Religions of salvation became key features of Mediterranean society in the Helenistic times. The roads of the Roman empire not only served as trade routes, but as openings for the word of religious salvation to spread. Mithraism started as a cult for Mithras, a god for the sun and light. Soldiers in Anatolia adapted the cult to their own interests, and related it to strength and courage rather than the sun and light. The cult of Mithras did not allow women, but cults for goddesses like Isis spread. The cult of Isis was the most popular before Christianity spread. All of these religions spread through the Mediterranean basin. Judaism and Early Christianity In an attempt to encourage political loyalty, emperors often created state cults to worship the emperors as gods. The Jews believed that the creation of these cults was totally outside of the belief of their religion. Jews often refused to pay taxes to the emperors who had claimed themselves to be gods. As the Romans began to spread into the eastern Mediterranean region the relations between the Romans and the Jews became more and more tense. Between the third and first centuries B. C. E. the Jews mounted several rebellious attacks against the Romans but ultimately failed. The Roman forces outfought the rebels during the Jewish War of 66 to 70 C. E. Some Jews actively fought the Romans and others founded new sects that looked for saviors. They observed a strict moral code and participated in rituals designed to reinforce a state of community. They also looked for a savior who would take them away from Roman rule and lead them to establish a community in which they could practice faith without interference. The early Christians probably had little contact with them but had many of the same concerns. Christians formed their community around Jesus of Nazareth. | Jesus of Nazareth| The Fall of the Roman Empire Internal Decay in the Roman Empire Although it is perceived that the collapse of the Roman empire only had one cause, there were actually multiple causes that caused the fall of the empire. The combination of internal problems and external pressures proved deadly for the civilization. Internal political problems included internal opposition, which was mostly the work of the 26 claimants. The claimants were successors to the imperial throne, and were nicknamed â€Å"barracks emperors. † Their deaths were violent, often times because of one another, and held their power for short periods of time. The shear size of the Roman empire also proved problematic for the future of Rome. Central governments were difficult to control over large areas, and epidemics soon spread like wildfire over the uncontrolled region. Eventually, self-sufficient economies took the place of a large central government. Diocletian, who reigned from 284-305 CE, attempted to solve the problem of size by dividing the empire into two administrative districts. Two co-emperors ruled the districts, with the aid of lieutenants and 4 officials, or tetrarchs. Only these officials were allowed to minister. Diocletian was a skilled administrator who brought Rome’s armies under control, and strengthened the imperial currency. Although his war strategies were more effective than his economic ones, this helped stabilize Rome’s economy. His retirement later resulted in civil war. Constantine was the son of Diocletian’s co-ruler Constantius became the emperor. Constantine wanted to become the sole emperor of Rome, so he reunited the Eastern and Western districts of Rome. Constantine wanted a new capital for the new united empire, so he built the city of Constantinople. Old problems of centralized government arose from this reunion, as both the population and economy of reunited Rome declined. There were no resources left to protect the new empire and its people, ending the reign of Constantine. Germanic Invasions and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military threat from migratory Germanic peoples and Germanic invasions brought an end to Roman authority in the western half of the empire, while the eastern half survived another millennium. The Visigroths, the most famous of this group of migrants, adopted Roman culture and laws, but were advised to settle outside of the imperial boundaries. The Huns, who migrated from Central Asia, were brilliantly led by the warrior-king Atilla, who organized the Huns into a nearly unstoppable military unit. They attacked Germanic peoples living on Roman empire boundaries. The Huns disappeared after Atilla’s death, but the Germanic peoples had such an effect from their violence that they began to seek refuge in Rome. They scattered in settlements throughout the Western Roman empire, and later overthrew the governments they were living under. The Visiogroths, under the leadership of Alaric, sacked Rome in 410 CE. Odovacer, a Germanic ruler, deposed Romulus Agustulus, ending the Western Roman empire. Cultural Change in the Late Roman Empire Germanic peoples governed and organized society with their own traditions now that they lacked the guardianship of the Romans. They adopted some Roman influence, mostly Roman laws which resonated deeply within their systems. Roman and Germanic traditions later blended to form Medieval Europe. Christianity survived the Roman empire collapse, and it became a huge influencer in the region. Constantine promulgated the  Edict of Milan,  which allowed Christians to practice their faith openly in the Roman empire. Constantine himself converts to Christianity, and the later emperor, Theodosius, makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire. Christianity historically resonated with the lower classes and women because of its equal nature, but during the 4th century CE, that began to change when intellectual elites began to take more interest in Christianity. St. Augustine (354-430 CE) was he most important and influential figure in the spread of Christianity after the collapse of the Western Roman empire. He was a bishop of Hippo, (a town in Northern Africa) and worked to reconcile Christianity with Greek and Roman philosophical traditions, and to articulate Christianity with the upper classes. Controversy arose within the religion, putting tension between people who interpreted the Christian doctrine in different ways. The foundation of the institutional church formed shortly after these disputes began to arise. The bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, and 4 patriarchs, were the church officials. Bishops and patriarchs would assemble in church councils to solve disputes, often times over the interpretations of Christine doctrines. In the meantime, missionaries converted Germanic peoples to Christianity. How to cite The Western Roman Empire – the Rise Fall, Papers

Ethical Dilemma for Ethical Principles and Ethical Theories

Question: Discuss about theEthical Dilemma for Ethical Principles and Ethical Theories. Answer: Introduction: Ethical dilemma is common occurrence in present day health care. Nurses need to be knowledgeable about the ethical principles, ethical theories, professional codes of conducts, codes of ethics and others to ensure safe practice and save themselves form legal obligation (Preshaw et al., 2016). A case study is chosen where the nurses had provided restraints in the aggressive patient leading to clashes between beneficence, non-maleficence. Theory of utilitarianism was also not followed. Several codes of ethics and professional conducts were also breached. The present assignments will gradually unfold how such occurrences had taken place and what a nurse in such situation should have done. Identification of the ethical issues: In the case study 2, the nurse named Camilla was assigned to care for a patient named Sam who was suffering from acute abdominal pain. When she was trying to measure his vital signs, she was prevented by the patient who was quite agitated. He violently pushed the nurse away and was not cooperating with her. He was answering irrationally and was continuously calling out. When the team arrived and witnessed his aggressive behaviour and verbal abuses along with his trying to pull his cannula out, they decided to restrain him. Although Camilla was apprehensive of the negative outcome that would result from the restraints, yet the nurse in charge Julia insisted to follow her orders as there was no workforce on the shift to handle the patient effectively. The case represented a scenario where the nurse was torn between two ethical situations. On one hand, she had the duty to maintain the safe practice of the patient to ensure that he gets well and her interventions have positive outcome on his health. On the other hand, she had to maintain the orders of her senior to restrain the patient as he was being a threat to the safety of the staffs on the ward and also to himself. To prevent any adverse events to occur on the ward, he was restrained so that his treatment could be continued without any interruption from him. However to do that, the nurses had to breach the ethical principles of autonomy and dignity as informed consents were not taken from the patient and his rights and human dignity was not paid importance to. Hence, here rises an ethical dilemma. The nurse named Camilla was facing dilemma where she was torn apart between her duties to maintain safe and effective practice for the patient to make him get well but at the same tim e was not being able to take informed consent of the patient for maintaining his dignity and autonomy (due to his aggressive behaviour and violence exhibited by him). A clear ethical perspective on the issues: While working with the patient, there arose many situations for which the nurse was not being able to initiate her treatments effectively. Measuring the vital signs of the patient was very important in order to understand the physiological condition of the body (Mertz Stretch, 2014). Following the vital signs and then determining the treatment requirements were extremely important to tackle his abdominal pain. The responsibility of the nurse is to provide the safest, evidence based and person centered care to the patient so that his symptoms are overcome. The ethical principles of beneficence and non maleficence always guide the nurse to provide the safest care to patients. The theory of Utilitarianism states that those care practices will be considered right which has the best outcome on the patient health (Eren, 2014). However, in order to do so, an uninterrupted care was very important which would ensure quality life. However, it was not possible as the patient was violent and ag gressive and was not allowing the nurse to actively conduct her assessment which was delaying his process of treatment. Therefore the nurses decided to restrain him and contribute his treatment. However, this was an unethical approach as present healthcare system guidelines instructs the importance of the maintenance of the principle of autonomy and dignity and asking for the patients permission before applying any interventions or restrains on him (Sinclair, Papps Maeshall, 2016). This should be kept in mind also that the patient was not in a stable state of mental health for which he was not being able to answer rationally and did not understand the negative aspect of his aggression. Still, by the rulebook, asking for dignity and informed consent are important which were breached by the Camilla and her senior nurse. Therefore this led to an ethical situation where Camilla was not being able to understand what actions to take as he was aware that restraints may also have physical harm to the patient and his aggression could increase. However providing effective care by restraining was also important. An alternative perspective to your own: Critical thinking and proper decision making are two important characters which need to be possessed by every nurse in her professional practice to ensure that she is providing the best care to the patient with the best approach that would ensure patient satisfaction. It was indeed true that the nurse was facing issues in carrying out her assessments of the vital signs. The patient was aggressive and violent which proposed a threat to the patient and also to the healthcare professionals. It was very indeed important for the nurse to carry on with the treatment just for the patient benefits. The principles of beneficence and non maleficence ensure the proper caring of the patient by the best service (Park et al., 2016). However, it does not necessarily mean that in order to maintain the two principles, another principle of autonomy and dignity needs to be avoided. Providing the right to the patient to allow the nurses to carry on the treatment is very important (Margettic et al., 2014 ). If a more skilled nurse would have been present in the ward, with proper experiences and skill, she should have found out other ways to handle the situation and thereby take an effective decision rather than deciding for restraining on the patient. Over the years, various evidence based journals have been published may procedures which help in handling aggressive patient thereby making their conditions stable (Hughes Lane, 2016). Researchers convey that restraints should be the last resort only when the other techniques for managing aggression fail. Ensuring open communication, developing a culture of positive attitudes, giving the scope to the patient to express his anger, refraining from having judgmental attitudes, smoothing the situation without pressuring the patient for proper behavior and many others help in such situation. Establishing decision-making protocol and acknowledging and dealing with conflicts quickly help in tackling the situation (Mohler Meyer, 2014). The r ationale provide by the nurses for applying restraints cannot be held valid. If the nurses really are following the principle of beneficence as well as non maleficence for the patient along with following the ethical theory of utilitarianism, still their activity for not asking for consent cannot be justified as restraints as rightly said by Camilla will cause physical harm and will increase his aggression. Therefore if another nurse would have been in the area, she would have applied the human factor for situation awareness and correct decision-making and apply evidence based strategies by which he could be stabilized following which consent would have been taken. Requirement to respect human dignity and human rights: Human dignity can be defined as the sense of self worth and self respect which includes the right to fill basic needs of food, safety and shelter. In the healthcare environment, human dignity mainly remains focused on the importance of privacy, respect and autonomy. Care should be always taken by healthcare professionals that their practices should never erode the human dignity. Modesty is one of the traits of human dignity and simple activities like lowering of voice when talking, helping them to walk, educating them about their health and the interventions, asking for their permission before applying interventions, before feeding, bathing and others increase patient satisfaction (Luo, 2014). Over the years, social activist researchers have found out through researches that every human being recognizes the need to have some measure of control over their bodies or what happens to their bodies and even over how their destinies unfold. Therefore, healthcare professionals do not keep an y human beings restrained to bed. This not only affects their mental health like creating depression, anxiety, frustration and others and even exacerbates aggression in case of psychotic patients. Besides, it also leads to physical harm, bruises, fractures and others. Just like the case study, researchers have also found out that less time and inadequate staffing act as some of the biggest barriers which nurses face when the condition of preserving patient dignity arises. In rush hours, nurses do not get time for address each patient as individual. Stress, fatigue, lack of concentration and also burnout may hamper the patients dignity (Eclock Lewis, 2016). In this case as well, Julie advised Camilla to apply restraints without trying her best to calm down the situations as staffs were less in number. Therefore, it is extremely important for every nurse to develop professional knowledge, dedication as well as clear vision to see every patient as another human being and thereby try t o keep the dignity intact by proper critical thinking and decision making skills. An important ethical theory studied in this unit: A debate can be established on the use of the ethical theory of utilitarianism. This theory states that an intervention or care can be termed as sufficient and proper only when the outcomes of the interventions has the best impact on the patient making the patient happy and live proper quality life. This theory mainly instructs to implement strategies which bring happiness for the people (Luo, 2016). Nurses treat patients with the goal that their intervention would help them overcome their phase of ailment and distress and give them a healthy life to make them happy. While Camilla was trying to provide the best care plan, she could not do so because of the violence she faced. In order to forcefully apply interventions and make him safe from threats, the patient was restrained. Applying restraints is a breach of the ethical theory of utilitarianism as making the patient feels bondage can never make him happy and in turn gave negative impacts on him. With the long term goal of the pati ents happy and healthy life, the nurses beached the short term goal of maintaining immediate happiness of the patient by applying restraints as they never thought about how the patients self image and self respect can be hampered making him unhappy (Chehab, 2017). Consequentialism which is the theory of ensuring interventions with the best outcomes to be the appropriate one is also not followed here. Julie never thought of the physical and mental impacts that would result from restraints and hence her activity also beached theory of consequentialism. Principles of health care ethics: Beneficence states that nurses should provide interventions which ensure safety of the patients and should have the best outcome (in comparison to other options). Non maleficence ensures interventions which would give no suffering to the patient. It is seen that both the principles clashed among themselves. In order to develop the health of the patient and to keep him safe from any self harm, restraints were put. Providing restraints helped them to conduct assessments of the patient and thereby develop an understanding of his condition to develop care plan with the bets interventions (Bollig, Gjengaegdal Rosland, 2016). However to do so, non maleficence was not maintained. The application of medical restraints harmed the patient more causing him mental as well as physical suffering which is strictly against the principle of non-maleficence. Hence, nurses should be more concerned and develop critical thinking ability to ensure proper decision making in stressful situations. Professions codes of ethics/ professional conduct professional standards: The Nursing and midwifery Board of Australia has provided with a set of codes of ethics which nurses should maintain in their practice to ensure best health of patients without getting engaged in ethical and legal obligations. However among the 8 codes of ethics, code 1, 2, 5 and 6 were not maintained. The nurses did not value quality nursing for the patient and did not exhibit respect and kindness for self as well as others. Nurses also did not value informed decision making as his permission was not taken before restraining him. The code 6 of maintaining a culture while providing care may seem to have been taken care of as they tried to put restraint on him for protecting him form self harm ("Code of Ethics for Nurses in Australia", 2017). However they missed out the part of the mental and physical harm which the patient may have due to restraints which would hamper his safety. Professional codes of conduct proposed by NMBA were also not followed. Code 1of maintaining a safe care was not followed ("Standard of practice, Nursing and midwifery board of Australia", 2017). Code 3 of maintaining laws in profession was not followed as breaching of human rights leads to legal obligations. Code 7 of maintaining informed decision making was also not followed. Hence, it is extremely important for all nurses to abide by the codes to ensure safe practice free from dilemma and legal obligations. Recommendations for professional practice: Every nurses when gets tangled in ethical dilemma, should utilize critical thinking skills and decision making skills to ensure that the steps they take are in compliance with the ethical principles and theories. Maintain of the human rights and dignities are important to overcome legal obligations. They should follow the professional codes of conduct and codes of ethics to ensure that their interventions abide by them. Restraints should always be considered as the last resort on different options in interventions. Nurses should follow various evidence based journals so that they can understand the most modern techniques which are applied to handle such patients and treat them effectively (Kusmaul, Bern-King Bonifas, 2017). Conclusion: Due to unavailability of workforce on the ward, Julies advice made Camilla apply medical restraints to maintain safety of the patient and also other staff members without his informed consent. This resulted in ethical dilemma as there was a clash between the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence. Moreover, the true sense of utilitarianism was also not followed. Professional codes of conduct and codes of ethics were also breached by the application of restraints on the patients. Nurses in such situations have to develop the human factors of decision making skills, critical reasoning skill and situation awareness so that they can apprehend the situations correctly. Moreover they should go through different evidenced based journals to remain informed about the modern care suggested by researchers in the recent years. This would help them to provide care to patients which would ensure patient satisfaction. References: Bollig, G., Gjengedal, E., Rosland, J. H. (2016). Nothing to complain about? Residents and relatives views on a good life and ethical challenges in nursing homes.Nursing ethics,23(2), 142-153. Chehab, M. (2017). Moral Distress: What Is Next?.Pediatric Critical Care Medicine,18(8), 814-815. Code of Ethics for Nurses in Australia. (2017).5_New-Code-of-Ethics-for-Nurses-. Retrieved 23 October 2017, from https://file:///C:/Users/user00/Downloads/5_New-Code-of-Ethics-for-Nurses-August-2008%20(3).PDF Elcock, S., Lewis, J. (2016). Mechanical Restraint: Legal, Ethical and Clinical Issues. InThe Use of Coercive Measures in Forensic Psychiatric Care(pp. 315-331). Springer International Publishing. Eren, N. (2014). Nurses attitudes toward ethical issues in psychiatric inpatient settings.Nursing ethics,21(3), 359-373. Hughes, L., Lane, P. (2016). Use of physical restraint: ethical, legal and political issues.Learning Disability Practice (2014+),19(4), 23. Kusmaul, N., Bern-Klug, M., Bonifas, R. (2017). Ethical Issues in Long-term Care: A Human Rights Perspective.Journal of Human Rights and Social Work,2(3), 86-97. Luo, L. (2014). Ethical issues in reference: challenges and solutions.ETHICAL DILEMMAS, 167. Luo, L. (2016). For Your Enrichment: Ethical Issues in Reference: An In-Depth View from the Librarians Perspective.Reference User Services Quarterly,55(3), 188-198. Margeti?, B., Margeti?, B. A., Ivanec, D. (2014). Opinions of forensic schizophrenia patients on the use of restraints: Controversial legislative issues.Psychiatric quarterly,85(4), 405-416. Mertz, M., Strech, D. (2014). Systematic and transparent inclusion of ethical issues and recommendations in clinical practice guidelines: a six-step approach.Implementation Science,9(1), 184. Mhler, R., Meyer, G. (2014). Attitudes of nurses towards the use of physical restraints in geriatric care: a systematic review of qualitative and quantitative studies.International journal of nursing studies,51(2), 274-288. Park, M., Jeon, S. H., Hong, H. J., Cho, S. H. (2014). A comparison of ethical issues in nursing practice across nursing units.Nursing ethics,21(5), 594-607. Preshaw, D. H., Brazil, K., McLaughlin, D., Frolic, A. (2016). Ethical issues experienced by healthcare workers in nursing homes: Literature review.Nursing ethics,23(5), 490-506 Sinclair, J., Papps, E., Marshall, B. (2016). Nursing students' experiences of ethical issues in clinical practice: A New Zealand study.Nurse education in practice,17, 1-7. Standard of practice, Nursing and midwifery board of Australia. (2017). Retrieved 23 October 2017, from https://file:///C:/Users/user00/Downloads/1798150_1830561517_Nursing-and-Midwifery-Board---.PDF